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Breast Cancer






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Breast cancer

WOMEN'S HEALTH

Cancer

From MayoClinic.com

In breast cancer, cells in your breast begin growing abnormally - often for unknown reasons. These cells divide more rapidly than healthy cells and may spread through your breast or into other parts of your body. The most common type of breast cancer begins in the ducts designed to carry milk after childbirth, but cancer may also occur in the small sacs that produce milk (lobules) or in other breast tissue.

Breast cancer is the disease many women fear most, though they're far more likely to die of cardiovascular disease than they are of all forms of cancer combined. Still, breast cancer is second only to lung cancer as a cause of cancer deaths in American women. More than 200,000 American women are diagnosed annually with breast cancer. And nearly 40,000 American women die annually of breast cancer. Although rare, breast cancer can also occur in men.

Yet there's more reason for optimism with regard to breast cancer than ever before. Great strides have been made in diagnosis and treatment in the last 25 years. In 1975 a diagnosis of breast cancer usually meant radical mastectomy - removal of the entire breast along with underarm lymph nodes and skin and muscles underneath the breast. Today, radical mastectomy is rarely performed. Instead, there are more and better treatment options, and many women are candidates for breast-sparing operations, such as lumpectomy.

Emphasis is also being placed on early detection, lifestyle changes and therapies such as tamoxifen that may reduce the risk of breast cancer. In addition, a growing network of agencies and resources exist to help those who have just received a diagnosis, are facing treatment decisions or are living with breast cancer.

Signs and symptoms

Knowing the signs and symptoms of breast cancer may help save your life. When the disease is discovered early, you have more treatment options and a better chance for long-term recovery. In fact, when breast cancer is diagnosed and treated in its early stages, the five-year survival rate is 95 percent.

Most breast lumps aren't cancerous. Yet the most common sign of breast cancer for both men and women is a lump or thickening in the breast. Often, the lump is painless. Other signs of breast cancer include:

A spontaneous clear or bloody discharge from your nipple

Retraction or indentation of your nipple

A change in the size or contours of your breast

Any flattening or indentation of the skin over your breast

Redness or pitting of the skin over your breast, like the skin of an orange

A number of factors other than breast cancer can cause your breasts to change in size or feel. In addition to the natural changes that occur during pregnancy and your menstrual cycle, other common noncancerous (benign) breast conditions include:

Fibrocystic changes. This condition can cause your breasts to feel ropy or granular. Fibrocystic changes are extremely common, occurring in at least half of all women. In most cases the changes are harmless. And they don't mean you're more likely to develop breast cancer. If your breasts are very lumpy, performing a breast self-exam is more challenging. Becoming familiar with what's normal for you through self-exams will help make detecting any new lumps or changes easier.

Cysts. These are fluid-filled sacs that frequently occur in the breasts of women ages 35 to 50. Cysts can range from very tiny to about the size of an egg. They can increase in size or become more tender just before your menstrual period, and may disappear completely after it. Cysts are less common in postmenopausal women.

Fibroadenomas. These are solid, noncancerous tumors that often occur in women during their reproductive years. A fibroadenoma is a firm, smooth, rubbery lump with a well-defined shape. It will move under your skin when touched and is usually painless.

Infections. Breast infections (mastitis) are common in women who are breast-feeding or who recently have stopped breast-feeding, although you can also develop mastitis that's not related to breast-feeding. Your breast will likely be red, warm, tender and lumpy, and the lymph nodes under your arm may swell. You also feel slightly ill and have a low-grade fever.

Trauma. Sometimes a blow to your breast or a bruise also can cause a lump. But this doesn't mean you're more likely to get breast cancer.

Calcium deposits (microcalcifications). These tiny deposits of calcium can appear anywhere in your breast and often show up on a mammogram. Most women have one or more areas of microcalcifications of various sizes. They may be caused by secretions from cells, cellular debris, inflammation, trauma or prior radiation. They're not the result of calcium supplements you take. The majority of calcium deposits are harmless, but a small percentage may be precancerous or cancer. If any appear suspicious, your doctor will likely recommend additional tests.

If you find a lump or other change in your breast and haven't yet gone through menopause, you may want to wait through one menstrual cycle before seeing your doctor. If the change hasn't gone away after a month, have it evaluated promptly.

Calcium (Calcium citrate)

Calcium Gluconate)

fever

menopause

Causes

Each of your breasts contains 15 to 20 lobes of glandular tissue, arranged like the petals of a daisy. The lobes are further divided into smaller lobules that produce milk during pregnancy and breast-feeding. Small ducts conduct the milk to a reservoir that lies just beneath your nipple. Supporting this network is a deeper layer of connective tissue called stroma.

The spaces between the lobes and ducts are filled with fat, which makes up about 80 to 85 percent of your breast during your reproductive years. Your breasts also contain vessels that transport lymph - a colorless fluid that carries waste products and cells of the immune system - to lymph nodes located primarily under your arm (axillary nodes) but also above your collarbone and in your chest. These nodes are collections of immune system cells that filter harmful bacteria and play a key role in fighting infection.

Cancer affects your cells, the basic units of life. Normally, cells grow and divide in an orderly way. But sometimes this growth gets out of control - cells continue dividing even when new cells aren't needed. These extra cells may form a mass of tissue called a tumor.

Tumors may be either noncancerous (benign) or cancerous (malignant). Cells from malignant tumors can invade and damage nearby tissues and organs. They may also travel through your bloodstream or lymph system to other parts of your body.

In most cases, it isn't clear what triggers abnormal cell growth in breast tissue. It is known that between 5 percent and 10 percent of breast cancers are inherited. Defects in one of two genes, breast cancer gene 1 (BRCA1) or breast cancer gene 2 (BRCA2), put you at greater risk of developing the disease. In fact, women who have mutations in these genes have a much higher chance of developing breast cancer and a higher chance of developing ovarian cancer. Both men and women can inherit these genes from either parent.

Although the discovery of these genes is important, it's only the first step. Breast cancer is a complex disease that eventually may prove to have a number of causes.

Risk factors

The American Cancer Society estimates that 75 percent of breast cancer cases occur in women with no known risk factors. At the same time, having one or even several risk factors doesn't mean you'll develop the disease. The following factors may increase your risk of breast cancer:

Sex. Being a woman is your greatest risk factor. Although men can develop breast cancer, it's 100 times more common in women.

Age. Your chances of developing breast cancer increase as you get older. The disease rarely affects women under 25 years of age, whereas close to 80 percent of breast cancers occur in women over age 50. At age 40, you have a one in 252 chance of developing breast cancer. By age 85, your chance is one in eight.

A personal history of breast cancer. If you've had breast cancer in one breast, you have an increased risk of developing cancer in the other breast.

Family history. Women who have a mother or sister with breast cancer have a greater chance of developing breast cancer themselves. In general, the more relatives you have with breast cancer who were premenopausal at the time of diagnosis, the higher your own risk. If you have one close relative with breast cancer, your risk is doubled. If you have two or more relatives, your risk increases even more.

Genetic predisposition. Between 5 percent and 10 percent of breast cancers are inherited. Defects in one of several genes, especially BRCA1 or BRCA2, put you at greater risk of developing the disease. Usually these genes help prevent cancer by making proteins that keep cells from growing abnormally. But if they have a mutation, the genes aren't as effective at protecting you from cancer. Women who are of Ashkenazi (Eastern and Central European Jewish) ancestry are especially at risk.

Excess weight. The relationship between excess weight and breast cancer is complex. In general, weighing more than is healthy for your age and height increases your risk if you've gained the weight as an adult and especially after menopause. The risk is even greater if you have more body fat in the upper part of your body. Although women usually have more fat in their thighs and buttocks, they tend to gain weight in their abdomens starting in their 30s, which can increase their risk.

Exposure to estrogen. The longer you're exposed to estrogen, the greater your breast cancer risk. In general, if you have a late menopause (after age 55) or you began menstruating before age 12, you have a higher risk of developing breast cancer. The same is true for women who never had children, or whose first pregnancy occurred when they were age 35 or older.

Race. Caucasian women are more likely to develop breast cancer than are black or Hispanic women. Black women, however, are more likely to die of the disease because they tend to be diagnosed at a later stage than are white women. But socioeconomic factors, rather than race, may account for the difference in mortality. A study of more than 5,000 Detroit-area women published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute found that women of all races with incomes below the poverty level were more likely to be diagnosed with late-stage breast cancer and three times more likely to die of the disease than were women with higher incomes. The study's authors concluded that low-income women weren't receiving the routine medical care that would allow breast cancer to be discovered earlier.

Hormone replacement therapy (HRT). In July 2002, a study sponsored by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) was halted as researchers reported that HRT, once considered standard treatment for menopausal symptoms, actually posed more health benefits than risks. Among those was a slightly higher risk of breast cancer for women taking the particular combination of HRT - estrogen plus progestin - used in the study. In addition, combination hormone therapy can make malignant tumors harder to detect on mammograms, leading to cancers that are diagnosed at more advanced stages, when they're harder to treat. Because combination HRT can result in serious side effects and health risks, work with your doctor to evaluate the options and decide what's best for you.

Birth control pills. Because of the recent information on HRT, many younger women are concerned about the relationship between birth control pills and breast cancer. Unfortunately, there's no clear answer. A large study of women between the ages of 35 and 64 published in June 2002 in the New England Journal of Medicine concluded that current or former use of oral contraceptives didn't increase the risk of breast cancer. But the American Cancer Society says that women currently using the pill may have a slightly increased risk, whereas women who stopped using oral contraceptives 10 years ago probably don't have such a risk. For the latest information on the pill and breast cancer, talk to your doctor.

Smoking. A study published in April 2001 found that smoking significantly increases the risk of breast cancer in women with a strong family history of breast and ovarian cancers.

Exposure to certain carcinogens. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are chemicals found mainly in cigarette smoke and charred red meat. Studies have shown that exposure to these chemicals can significantly increase your chances of developing breast cancer. Exposure to certain pesticides also may increase your risk, but more research needs to be done to establish a clear link.

Excessive use of alcohol. Women who consume more than one alcoholic drink a day have a 20 percent greater risk of breast cancer than do women who don't drink. The National Cancer Institute recommends limiting alcohol intake to no more than one drink daily.

Alcohol addiction

menopause

Unusual sleep patterns. You may have an increased risk of breast cancer if you work the graveyard shift or are up often during the night. The risk seems to be greatest if you don't sleep between 1 a.m. and 2 a.m., when levels of melatonin - a sleep-regulating hormone - are highest. Women who reported missing sleep during this period at least three nights a week had a 40 percent increased risk of developing breast cancer. Women who worked nights fared worse, with a 60 percent increased risk. Researchers speculate that suppression of melatonin by exposure to light may increase the release of estrogen by the ovaries.

When to seek medical advice

Although most breast changes aren't cancerous, it's important to have them evaluated promptly. If a problem exists, you can have it identified and treated as soon as possible. See your doctor if you discover a lump or any of the other warning signs of breast cancer. And if you've been treated for breast cancer, report any new signs or symptoms immediately. These include a new lump in your breast or an ache or pain - especially in a bone - that doesn't go away after three weeks. In addition, talk to your doctor about developing a breast-screening program that's right for you.

Screening and diagnosis

Screening - looking for evidence of disease before symptoms appear - is the key to finding breast cancer in its early, treatable stages. Depending on your age and risk factors, screening may include breast self-examination, examination by your nurse or doctor (clinical breast exam), mammograms (mammography) or other tests.

Breast self-examination

For years, women have been advised to examine their breasts on a monthly basis starting around age 20. The hope was that by becoming proficient at breast self-examination and familiar with the usual appearance and feel of their breasts, women would be able to detect early signs of cancer.

But some studies have shown that teaching women to perform breast self-exams may not accomplish this goal. A large, randomized clinical study in Shanghai, China, for example, concluded that breast self-exams don't actually reduce the number of deaths from breast cancer. In addition, the study found that women who perform regular breast self-exams may be more likely to undergo unnecessary biopsies after finding breast lumps. This was one of the primary reasons that in May 2003 the American Cancer Society changed its recommendations on breast self-examination, stating that the procedure should be considered an option, rather than a requirement, for most women.

The new guidelines emphasize breast health awareness instead of a strict series of monthly self-exams. Although the guidelines don't say you shouldn't perform the exams, the importance of self-exams has been replaced by a general need to become more familiar with your breasts. If you'd like to continue performing breast self-exams, ask your doctor to review your technique.

To check for breast changes, do a self-exam once a month. Use your eyes and hands to search for lumps, thickened areas, swelling and skin changes. Move your fingertips in a circular motion, going .

Clinical breast exam

Unless you have a family history of cancer or other factors that place you at high risk, the American Cancer Society recommends having clinical breast exams once every three years until age 40. After that, the American Cancer Society recommends having a yearly clinical exam.

During this exam, your doctor examines your breasts for lumps or other changes. He or she may be able to feel lumps you miss when you examine your own breasts and will also look for enlarged lymph nodes in your armpit (axilla).

Mammogram

A mammogram, which uses a series of X-rays to show images of your breast tissue, is currently the best imaging technique for detecting tumors before you or your doctor can feel them. For that reason, the American Cancer Society has long recommended screening mammography for all women over 40.

Yet mammograms aren't perfect. About 10 percent to 15 percent of breast cancers - sometimes even lumps you can feel - don't show up on X-rays (false-negative result). The rate is higher - about 25 percent - for women in their 40s. That's because women of this age and younger tend to have denser breasts, making it more difficult to distinguish abnormal from normal tissue.

At other times, mammograms may indicate a problem when none exists (false-positive result). This can lead to unnecessary biopsies, fear and anxiety, as well as to increased health care costs. Even so, the consensus has been that if mammography saves lives, then all eligible women should be screened.

That assumption has been challenged in recent years - especially by a 2001 analysis of several large, long-term studies that raised questions about the benefit of mammography screening for breast cancer. The report concluded that several prior studies didn't clearly show that screening mammograms result in fewer deaths from breast cancer. This led to great confusion about mammography for both women and doctors.

But a study published in April 2003, in which researchers followed more than 200,000 Swedish women for 20 years, hopes to end the confusion. That study found that mammogram screening does indeed reduce breast cancer mortality for women between the ages of 40 and 69 - by as much as 28 percent. What's more, the study's authors say that mammography screening along with improved treatments can halve the number of deaths from breast cancer.

In May 2003, the American Cancer Society issued updated guidelines on breast cancer screening, strongly reaffirming its recommendation that women 40 and older have annual mammograms. Additional American Cancer Society screening guidelines include the following:

If you're in your 20s or 30s, have a clinical breast exam every three years, and have one annually if you're 40 or older.

Know how your breasts normally feel and report any changes to your doctor. Starting in your 20s, breast self-examination is an option.

If you're at greater risk of breast cancer due to a family history, genetic makeup or past breast cancer, talk with your doctor. You may benefit from more frequent exams, earlier mammography or additional tests.

During a mammogram, your breasts are compressed between plastic plates while a radiology technician takes the X-rays. The whole procedure should take less than 30 minutes. You may find mammography somewhat uncomfortable. If you have too much discomfort, inform the technician. If you have tender breasts, schedule your mammogram for a time after your menstrual period. Avoiding caffeine for two days before the test also helps reduce breast tenderness.

Also available at some mammography centers is a soft, single-use, foam pad that can be placed on the surface of the compression plates of the mammography machine, making the test kinder and gentler. The pad doesn't interfere with the image quality of the mammogram.

If possible try to schedule your mammogram around the same time as your annual clinical exam. That way the radiologist can specifically look at any changes your doctor may discover.

Most importantly, don't let a lack of health insurance keep you from having regular mammograms. Many state health departments and Planned Parenthood clinics offer low-cost or free screenings. So does the Encore Plus program available through many YWCAs.

Diagnostic procedures
If you, your doctor or a mammogram detects a lump in your breast, you'll likely have one or more diagnostic procedures to determine if the lump is cancerous, including:

Ultrasound
Often, your doctor will suggest a less invasive procedure, such as ultrasound, before deciding on a biopsy. Ultrasound is a procedure that uses sound waves to create an image of your breast on a computer screen. By analyzing this image, your doctor may be able to tell whether a lump is a cyst or a solid mass. Cysts, which are sacs of fluid, usually aren't cancerous, although you may want to have a painful cyst drained with a needle.

Biopsy
In some cases, your doctor may want to remove a small sample of tissue (biopsy) for analysis in the laboratory. To do so, he or she may use one of the following procedures:

Fine-needle aspiration biopsy. The simplest type of biopsy, this is used for lumps you or your doctor can feel. During the procedure your doctor uses a thin, hollow needle to withdraw cells from the lump. He or she then sends the cells to a lab for analysis. The procedure isn't uncomfortable, takes about 30 minutes and is similar to drawing blood. Another procedure, fine-needle aspiration, is used primarily to remove the fluid from a painful cyst, but it can also help distinguish a cyst from a solid mass.

Core needle biopsy. During this procedure, a radiologist or surgeon uses a hollow needle to remove tissue samples from a breast lump. As many as 15 samples, each about the size of a grain of rice, may be taken, and a pathologist then analyzes them for malignant cells. The advantage of a core needle biopsy is that it removes tissue, rather than just cells, for analysis. Sometimes your radiologist or surgeon may use ultrasound to help guide the placement of the needle.

Stereotactic biopsy. This technique is used to evaluate an area of concern that can be seen on a mammogram but that cannot be felt or seen on an ultrasound. During the procedure, a radiologist takes a core needle biopsy, using your mammogram as a guide. Stereotactic biopsy usually takes about an hour and is performed using local anesthesia.

Wire localization. Your doctor may recommend this technique when a worrisome lump is seen on a mammogram but can't be felt or evaluated with a stereotactic biopsy. Using your mammogram as a guide, a thin wire is placed in your breast and the tip guided to the lump. Wire localization is usually performed right before a surgical biopsy, and is a way to guide the surgeon to the area to be removed and tested.

Surgical biopsy. This remains one of the most accurate methods for determining whether a breast change is cancerous. During this procedure, your surgeon removes all or part of a breast lump. In general, a small lump will be completely removed (excisional biopsy). If the lump is larger, only a sample will be taken (incisional biopsy). The biopsy is generally performed on an outpatient basis in a clinic or hospital.

Estrogen and progesterone receptor tests

If a biopsy reveals malignant cells, your doctor will recommend additional tests - such as estrogen and progesterone receptors tests - on the malignant cells. These tests help determine whether female hormones affect the way the cancer grows. If the cancer cells have receptors for estrogen or progesterone or both, your doctor may recommend treatment with a drug such as tamoxifen that prevents estrogen from binding to these sites.

Staging tests

Staging tests help determine the size and location of your cancer, and whether it has spread. They also help your doctor determine the best treatment for you. Cancer is staged using the numbers 0 through IV.

Stage 0 cancers are also called noninvasive or in situ (in one place) cancers. Although they don't have the ability to spread to other parts of your body or invade normal breast tissue, it's important to have them removed because they eventually can become invasive cancers. Finding and treating a cancerous lump at this stage offers the best chance for a full recovery.

Stage I to IV cancers are invasive tumors that have the ability to spread to other areas. A stage I cancer is small and well localized, and has a very successful treatment rate. But the higher the stage number, the lower the chances of cure. By stage IV, the cancer has spread beyond your breast to other organs, such as your bones, lungs or liver. Although it may not be possible to eliminate the cancer at this stage, its spread may be controlled with radiation, chemotherapy or both.

Genetic testing
The discovery of BRCA1, BRCA2 and other genes that may significantly increase breast cancer risk has raised a number of emotional and legal questions about genetic testing. A simple blood test can help identify defective BRCA genes, but it's only 85 percent accurate, and most experts believe that only those women at high risk of hereditary breast or ovarian cancers should be referred for testing. If you're one of these women, it's important to know that having a defective BRCA gene doesn't mean you'll get breast cancer. In addition, test results cannot determine how high your risk is, at what age you might develop cancer, how aggressively the cancer might progress or what your risk of death may be.

In general, testing is most beneficial if the results of the test will help you make a decision about how you might best reduce your chance of developing breast cancer. Options range from lifestyle changes, closer screening and therapy with medications such as tamoxifen to extreme measures such as preventive (prophylactic) bilateral mastectomy or removal of your ovaries (oophorectomy). These can be wrenching decisions for any woman to make. Be sure to thoroughly discuss all your options with a genetic counselor, who can explain the risks, benefits and limitations of genetic testing. It can also help to talk to other women who have had to make similar decisions.

Treatment

A diagnosis of breast cancer is one of the most difficult experiences you can face. In addition to coping with a life-threatening illness, you must make complex decisions about treatment. Remember, in most cases no one right treatment exists for breast cancer. Instead, you'll want to find the approach that's best for you.

To do that, you'll need to consider many different factors, including the type and stage of your cancer, your age, risk factors, where you are in your life, the size and shape of your breasts, and your feelings about your body.

Before making any decisions, learn as much as you can about the many treatment options that exist. Talk extensively with your health care team. Consider a second opinion from a breast specialist in a breast center or clinic. Don't be afraid to ask questions. In addition, look for breast cancer books, Web sites and information available from organizations such as the American Cancer Society and the Susan G. Komen Breast Cancer Foundation. Talking to other women who have faced the same decision also may help. This may be the most important decision you ever make.

Treatments exist for every type and stage of breast cancer. Most women will have surgery and an additional (adjuvant) therapy such as radiation, chemotherapy or hormone therapy. And several experimental treatments are now offered on a limited basis or are being studied in clinical trials.

Surgery

At one time, the only type of breast cancer surgery was radical mastectomy, which removed the entire breast, along with chest muscles beneath the breast and all the lymph nodes under the arm. Today, this operation is rarely performed. Instead, the majority of women are candidates for breast-saving operations, such as lumpectomy. Less radical mastectomies and mastectomy with reconstruction are also options.

Breast cancer operations include the following:

Lumpectomy. This operation saves as much of your breast as possible by removing only the lump plus a surrounding area of normal tissue. Your surgeon will likely also do a sentinel lymph node dissection to check for possible spread of cancer. In most cases, your operation will be followed by radiation therapy to kill any remaining cancer cells. You usually have radiation therapy every weekday for six to seven weeks. Many women can have lumpectomy plus radiation instead of mastectomy, and in most cases survival rates for both operations are the same. In addition, many more women are satisfied with their appearance after lumpectomy. But lumpectomy may not be an option if a tumor is deep within your breast, or if you've already had radiation therapy, have two or more areas of cancer in the same breast that are far apart, have a connective tissue disease that makes you sensitive to radiation or are pregnant. Keep in mind that if you choose lumpectomy, you'll often also need radiation.

Partial or segmental mastectomy. Also considered a breast-sparing operation, partial mastectomy involves removing the tumor as well as some of the breast tissue around the tumor and the lining of the chest muscles that lie beneath it. Some lymph nodes under your arm also may be removed. In almost all cases, you'll have a course of radiation therapy following your operation.

Simple mastectomy. During a simple mastectomy, your surgeon removes all your breast tissue - the lobules, ducts, fatty tissue and a strip of skin with the nipple and areola. Depending on the results of the operation and follow-up tests, you may also need further treatment with radiation, chemotherapy or hormone therapy.

Modified radical mastectomy. In this procedure, a surgeon removes your entire breast and some underarm (axillary) lymph nodes, but leaves your chest muscles intact. This makes breast reconstruction less complicated. But serious arm swelling (lymphedema) - a common complication of mastectomy - is more likely to occur in modified radical mastectomy than in simple mastectomy with sentinel node biopsy. Your lymph nodes will be tested to see if the cancer has spread. Depending on those results, you may need further treatment.

Sentinel lymph node biopsy. Breast cancer first spreads to the lymph nodes under the arm. That's why all women with invasive cancer need to have these nodes examined. If your surgeon doesn't plan to do this, be sure you understand the reason why. Until recently, surgeons would remove as many lymph nodes as possible. But this greatly increased the risk of numbness, recurrent infections and lymphedema - a serious swelling of the arm. That's why a procedure has been developed that focuses on finding the sentinel nodes - the first nodes to receive the drainage from breast tumors and therefore the first to develop cancer. If a sentinel node is removed, examined and found to be healthy, the chance of finding cancer in any of the remaining nodes is very small and no other nodes need to be removed. This spares many women the need for a more extensive operation and greatly decreases the risk of complications.

Reconstructive surgery
Most women who undergo mastectomy are able to choose whether to have breast reconstruction. This is a very personal decision, and there's no right or wrong choice. You may find, however, that you have feelings you didn't expect about your breasts. It's important to understand these feelings before making any decision.

If you would like reconstruction but aren't a candidate for the procedure, you'll need to find a way to come to terms with your disappointment. It may be extremely helpful to talk to other women who have experienced the same situation.

If reconstruction is an option, your surgeon will refer you to a plastic surgeon. He or she can describe the procedures to you and show you photos of women who have had different types of reconstruction. Your options include reconstruction with a synthetic breast implant or reconstruction using your own tissue to rebuild your breast. These operations can be performed at the time of your mastectomy or at a later date.

Reconstruction with implants. Using artificial materials to reconstruct your breast involves implanting a silicone shell filled either with silicone gel or salt water (saline). If you don't have enough muscle and skin to cover an implant, your doctor may use a tissue expander. This is an empty implant shell that inflates as fluid is injected. It's placed under your skin and muscle, and your doctor gradually fills it with fluid - usually over a period of several months. When your muscle and skin have stretched enough, the expander is removed and replaced with a permanent implant. Recovery may take several weeks. In general, an implant makes your breast firmer than a normal breast. Implants may cause pain, swelling, bruising, tenderness or infection. And they do age over time, requiring replacement. There is also a long-term possibility of rupture, deflation and shifting.

Reconstruction with a tissue flap. Known as a transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM) flap, this surgery reconstructs your breast using tissue, including fat and muscle, from your abdomen. Sometimes your surgeon may also use tissue from your back or buttocks. Because the procedure is fairly complicated, recovery may take six to eight weeks. You may also need future adjustments to the breast. Complications include the risk of infection and tissue death. If you have little body fat, this type of reconstruction may not be an option for you. On the other hand, a breast reconstructed from your own tissue doesn't seem to interfere with the detection of tumors. It's also permanent, and has the look and feel of a normal breast.

Deep interior epigastric perforator (DIEP) reconstruction. In this procedure, fat tissue from your abdomen is used to create a natural-looking breast. But because your abdominal muscles are left intact, you're less likely to experience complications than you are with traditional breast reconstruction. You may also have less pain, and your healing time may be reduced.

Reconstruction of your nipple and areola. After initial surgery with either tissue transfer or an implant, you may have further surgery to make a nipple and areola. Using tissue from elsewhere in your body, your surgeon first creates a small mound to resemble a nipple. He or she may then tattoo the skin around the nipple to create an areola. Your surgeon may also take a skin graft from elsewhere on your body, place it around the reconstructed nipple to slightly raise the skin and then tattoo the skin graft.

Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy uses high-energy X-rays to kill cancer cells and shrink tumors. If you choose lumpectomy, or if a biopsy has confirmed that there are cancer cells in more than four lymph nodes in your armpit, your oncologist will likely recommend radiation to your chest wall after your mastectomy. Although the thought of radiation can be disturbing, it may help to know that it's a more accurate and less aggressive treatment than it once was.

Radiation is usually started three to four weeks after surgery. You'll typically receive treatment five days a week for six to seven weeks. The treatments are painless and are similar to getting an X-ray. Each takes about 30 minutes. The effects are cumulative, however, and you may become tired toward the end of the series. Your breast may be pink, puffy and somewhat tender, as if it had been sunburned.

More serious, long-term complications are rare but can sometimes occur. These include rib fractures, lung inflammation, injury to the heart, nerve damage and a change in the appearance and consistency of breast tissue. In extremely rare cases, a new tumor may result from radiation therapy.

Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy uses drugs to destroy cancer cells. Your doctor may recommend chemotherapy following surgery to kill any cancer cells that may have spread outside your breast. Treatment often involves receiving two or more drugs in different combinations. These may be administered intravenously, in pill form or both. You may have between four and eight treatments spread over three to six months.

In some cases, your doctor may suggest preoperative chemotherapy - taking chemotherapy drugs to shrink a breast tumor before surgery. This may make it possible for you to have a lumpectomy rather than a mastectomy to remove the cancer, with the same survival rate as if you were to have chemotherapy after breast surgery.

No matter when it's administered, chemotherapy can feel like another illness. The side effects may include hair loss, nausea, vomiting and fatigue. These occur because chemotherapy affects healthy cells - especially fast-growing cells in your digestive tract, hair and bone marrow - as well as cancerous ones. Not everyone has side effects, however, and there are now better ways to control them if you do.

fatigue

Nausea

vomiting

Many new drugs can help prevent or greatly reduce nausea. Relaxation techniques, including guided imagery, meditation and deep breathing also may help. In addition, exercise has been shown to be effective in reducing fatigue caused by chemotherapy.

Hormone therapy

Hormone therapy is most often used to treat women with advanced (metastatic) breast cancer or as an adjuvant treatment - a therapy that seeks to prevent a recurrence of cancer - for women diagnosed with early-stage estrogen-receptor-positive cancer. Estrogen-receptor-positive cancer means that estrogen or progesterone might encourage the growth of breast cancer cells in your body. Normally, estrogen and progesterone bind to certain sites in your breast and in other parts of your body. But during this treatment, a hormonal medication binds to these sites instead and prevents estrogen from reaching them. This may help destroy cancer cells that have spread or reduce the chances that your cancer will recur.

Medications that reduce the effect of estrogen in your body include:

Tamoxifen (Nolvadex). This is a synthetic hormone belonging to a class of drugs known as selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs). It's used as a treatment for metastatic breast cancer, as an adjuvant therapy, especially in women with breast cancer who have gone through menopause, and sometimes as a preventive agent in high-risk women. You take tamoxifen daily, in pill form, for up to five years. It may reduce the risk of recurrence of breast cancer and is less toxic than most anticancer drugs. But tamoxifen isn't trouble free. Women taking tamoxifen may experience menopausal symptoms such as night sweats, hot flashes, vaginal itch or discharge, and diminished sexual interest. Less common but potentially life-threatening side effects also can occur. These include blood clots in your lungs (pulmonary embolism) and legs (deep vein thrombosis) and endometrial cancer. Older women and women who are black are at greater risk of these side effects than are younger women or those who are white. In addition, some studies have shown that side effects of systemic adjuvant therapies - chemotherapy and tamoxifen - may be more long-term than originally thought.

Aromatase inhibitors. This class of drugs inhibits the effect of estrogen by reducing its production in your adrenal glands. Aromatase inhibitors are currently approved only for the treatment of metastatic cancer, but early studies suggest that they may be more effective than is tamoxifen in preventing the recurrence of breast cancer. And one drug, anastrozole (Arimidex), may perform better than does tamoxifen as an adjuvant therapy. For now, though, many oncology experts believe tamoxifen should remain the adjuvant treatment of choice for women with hormone-receptor-

menopause

Biological therapy
Sometimes called biological response modifier or immunotherapy, this treatment tries to stimulate your body's immune system to fight cancer. Using substances produced by the body or similar substances made in a laboratory, biological therapy seeks to enhance your body's natural defenses against specific diseases. Many of these therapies are experimental and available only in clinical trials. One medication, trastuzumab (Herceptin), is a monoclonal antibody - a substance produced in a laboratory by mixing cells - that's available for treating certain advanced cases of breast cancer. Herceptin is effective against tumors that produce excess amounts of a protein called HER-2, which occurs in about 25 percent of breast cancers.

Clinical trials
A number of new approaches to treating cancer are being studied. The emphasis is on methods that can successfully treat women or extend their survival with minimal side effects. Among these are drugs that block the biochemical switches that cause normal cells to turn cancerous. In addition, a procedure known as anti-angiogenesis - which targets the blood vessels that supply nutrients to cancer cells - is also being studied. And gene therapy is an area of ongoing research.

Of particular interest to both women and their doctors are methods of removing breast cancer without actually cutting into or removing the breast. Nonsurgical methods being studied include techniques that use heat or cold to kill cancer cells deep within the breast, leaving only minimal scars.

One of the most researched techniques, radiofrequency ablation, uses ultrasound to locate the tumor. Then a metal probe about the size of a toothpick is inserted into the tumor where it creates heat that destroys cancer cells. In early tests, the procedure has proved enormously successful. Still, only about 25 percent of women would be candidates for the procedure if it eventually were approved for widespread use.

Prevention

Clinical exams and mammography won't prevent breast cancer. But these important procedures can help detect cancer in its earliest stages. The sooner you receive a diagnosis, the less treatment you need, the more options you have, and the better your overall prognosis.

There's no known way to prevent breast cancer. But the following steps may help reduce your risk:

Eat foods high in fiber. Try to increase the amount of fiber you eat to between 20 and 30 grams daily - about twice the amount in an average American diet. Among its many health benefits, fiber helps reduce the amount of circulating estrogen in your body. Foods high in fiber include fresh fruits and vegetables and whole grains.

Eat plenty of fruits and vegetables. Fruits and vegetables contain vitamins, minerals and antioxidants that can help protect you from cancer. The American Cancer Society recommends five or more servings of fruits and vegetables every day. Look for deep green and dark yellow or orange fruits and vegetables, such as Swiss chard, bok choy, spinach, cantaloupe, mango, acorn or butternut squash and sweet potatoes. Also try to eat vegetables from the cabbage family, including broccoli, brussels sprouts and cauliflower. Lycopene, a nutrient found in tomatoes and other red fruits and vegetables such as strawberries and red bell peppers, may be a particularly powerful anticancer chemical.

Include soy foods in your diet. Some studies suggest that substances in soy may inhibit the development and growth of cancer cells. One is the isoflavone genistein, which seems to bind to estrogen receptor sites, blocking the activity of estrogen in your body. Good sources of soy include tofu, soy milk and products made with soy milk. One caution, however. If you have, or are at risk of, estrogen-stimulated cancer, it's best to limit your intake of soy until researchers know whether plant estrogens can stimulate tumor development. And although the connection between soy and tamoxifen isn't clear, it's possible soy may reduce the medication's effectiveness.

Limit fat in your diet. Several observation studies have reported a correlation between a high dietary fat intake and breast cancer risk. What's more, reducing the amount of fat in your diet decreases your risk of some other cancers as well as the risks of diabetes, cardiovascular disease and stroke. And it helps you maintain a healthy weight, which also reduces your risk of breast cancer. It's a good idea to limit your fat intake to less than 35 percent of your daily calories, with no more than eight percent to 10 percent coming from saturated fats.

Limit red meat. The National Cancer Institute has linked consumption of red meat - beef, pork and veal - to an increased risk of several types of cancer, including breast cancer. One study found that the risk of breast cancer doubled in postmenopausal women who ate three ounces of red meat a day as compared with women who ate one ounce or less of red meat daily. Instead, emphasize fish, especially fatty fish such as salmon - their omega-3 fatty acids may help prevent breast cancer.

Limit alcohol. Try to limit your alcohol intake to no more than one drink a day. A recent study suggests that taking folic acid might help reduce the risk of breast cancer in women who consume moderate amounts of alcohol.

Stay physically active. The Nurses' Health Study, a long-term study of more than 120,000 female nurses, found that women who exercised for at least one hour a day reduced their breast cancer risk by 18 percent. Those who exercised for 30 minutes every day reduced their risk by 10 percent. Walking was found to be as effective as more vigorous types of exercise. Other studies have shown that women who exercise consistently for at least 10 years of life - whether in adolescence or adulthood - can cut their risk of cancer by as much as 75 percent. A good place to start is to aim for at least 30 minutes of exercise on most days. If you haven't been active before, start out slowly and work up gradually. Try to include weight-bearing exercises such as walking, jogging or dancing. These have the added benefit of keeping your bones strong.

Maintain a healthy weight. There's a clear link between weighing more than is healthy for you and breast cancer. The risk is greatest if you gain weight later in life, especially after menopause.

Diabetes

Diabetes, gestational

Diabetic retinopathy

Peripheral neuropathy

Diabetic retinopathy

Autonomic neuropathy

menopause

Stroke

Avoid exposure to pesticides. The molecular structure of some pesticides closely resembles that of estrogen. This means they may attach to receptor sites in your body. Although studies have not found a definite link between most pesticides and breast cancer, it is known that women with elevated levels of pesticides in their breast tissue have a greater breast cancer risk.

If you're at high risk, ask your doctor about tamoxifen. The hormonal drug tamoxifen may reduce the risk of breast cancer in women who are at high risk of the disease. The largest study of tamoxifen to date showed that tamoxifen decreased the risk of developing breast cancer by about 50 percent during the five years of the study, although the risk of dying from the disease was not reduced. In addition, tamoxifen has other risks, including an increased chance of developing endometrial cancer, blood clots and cataracts. Only women at high risk of breast cancer are candidates for tamoxifen as a risk-reducing agent. Even then, you'll need to weigh the costs and benefits carefully with your doctor.

In this exclusive interview, Peter Duesberg, PhD, discusses his controversial cancer theory and why the scientific community and the mainstream media are forced to ignore it.

Question: Your recently proposed theory of cancer, based on the notion of abnormal numbers of chromosomes, runs contrary to currently accepted theory of genetic mutation. Can you give a brief overview of the theory for the uneducated reader?

Answer: Briefly, there are two very different mechanisms of mutation, gene mutation for minor adjustments within a species and chromosome number mutation for big dominant changes, good or bad.

All chromosome number mutations, such as the normal ones that determine sex and a new species and the abnormal ones that happen at conception or in rare cells after birth, change the phenotype dramatically, or dominantly as we say in "the business". The accidental chromosome number mutations that occur at conception and after birth all generate abnormal chromosome numbers, called aneuploidy, and abnormal phenotypes, such as Down syndrome and cancer.

For example a normal +/- of the Y chromosome = boy or girl, and a very, very rare addition of two extra chromosomes to your normal 46 and you or me are a gorilla!

An abnormal aneuploidy of + one extra #21 chromosome at conception means 'Down Syndrome'. And an abnormal aneuploidy of typically 20 additional and sometimes missing, otherwise normal chromosomes and you are looking at your favorite metastatic lung, colon, breast or liver cancer.

For those who are still a little fuzzy about the relationship between genes and chromosomes, here is a little analaogy that might help:

Assume the cell is a car factory (and that is a pretty good analogy). Then gene mutations are weak (negative) or strong (positive) assembly line workers. And chromosome number mutations (ie. aneuploidy or polyploidy) are extra assembly lines. If they are proportionally multiplied you get 2, 3 , etc. more normal cars, if they are randomly multiplied you get unpredictable monsters with 7 wheels, two steering wheels, no brakes, three engines, etc. While most of these would be lethal, some would be monstrous parasites (ie. cancer cells).

Parasites

Q. What implications does your new theory have, if any, upon current cancer research efforts?

A. A whole new dimension, perhaps the right one!

Q. What implications does your new theory have, if any, upon current cancer cancer treatment practices (i.e., chemotherapy and radiation)?

A. Treatment of all mutations is as yet rather hopeless. But, if based on the aneuploidy hypothesis, cancer-suspect biopsies were tested and found to be aneuploid, early treatment could much improve cancer prevention.

Q. What implications does your new theory have, if any, upon current carcinogenic testing of various substances (i.e., drugs, environmental pollutants, drinking water chemicals, etc?

A. Again, if the very testable aneuploidy hypothesis were confirmed, we would test cancer-suspect substances for their ability to cause aneuploidy instead of gene mutation. That could revolutionize cancer prevention.

Q. Are there such things as cancer-specific genes?

A. Not one has been identified in about a century old search! There is but one exception, viral oncogenes - my old "claim to fame".

Q. Some women are being told that they are genetically more susceptible to breast cancer and as a result, many are deciding to have their healthy breasts removed (prophylactic mastectomy). What do you think of such practices?

A. Science at its worst! The genes that are identified may be (!) predisposition genes, rather than cancer causing genes. In other words, genes that facilitate the alteration/mutation that really causes cancer. Until this is settled, identifying disposition genes is speculative at best.

And prophylactic surgery is presumptuous, harmful and self-serving on the part of the presumptuous scientists with a licences to practice surgery. It is long known that blondes have a higher skin cancer risk than blacks. Should we start impregnating the skin of blondes with black dyes to reduce their skin cancer risks? Why not?

Q. Does your chromosome theory preclude cancer from being hereditary?

A. Yes, because aneuploidy is not heritable.

Q. How is it that cancer seems sometimes to run in families?

A. See above, "disposition" genes.

Q. You note that many carcinogens act without damaging genes, such as asbestos, hormones, arsenic, nickel, etc. How do these substances act then, according to your theory?

A. They cause aneuploidy, either by interfering with the spindle apparatus, or by breaking chromosomes (see our paper "Aneuploidy, the mutation that makes cancer a species of its own" Cell Motil & Cytoskel 2000; 47: 81-107). It describes that in detail.

Q. You state "cancer is by definition, a species of its own." This may surprise and confuse many lay people. Can you explain briefly?

A. The definition of a species includes a species-specific chromosome number, ie. 46 for humans. Once that number is changed all bets are off. You may be a monkey or a cancer or a Down Syndrome patient, depending directly on the degree of deviation from the normal human chromosome balance (and gene arrangement within chromosomes in different species).

Q. You also state that "It differs from authentic species in that it is parasitic, ie, it is unable to function independently." However, most parasites feed off of the host, but don't kill it, as that would be self-destructive. Therefore, the fact that cancer often kills would seem counterproductive.

A. Yes, cancer is self-destructive! It is not an exogenous parasite that has to make a living on its own. It is one of the many age-dependent diseases that are all also self-destructive. It is an inherent risk of all multicellular organisms.

Q. You note that the chromosome cancer theory was originally proposed over 100 years ago, but was abandoned. Can you explain briefly why this occurred?

A. The main reason was, that no cancer-specific aneuploidy, ie. aneuploid karyotype, was ever found. Even the cells of a given tumor have non-identical karyotypes. In view of this it was concluded that aneuploidy must be a consequence rather than the cause of cancer. The cause was/is thought to be a specific gene mutation, that has never been found.

Moreover, the enormous mutagenic range of aneuploidy is not part of the mind set of modern geneticists. They are all narrowly focused on genes. The word "aneuploidy" is not even in the index of the leading molecular biology text books, ie. Lewin, Lodish, Watson, Alberts etc.

Q. In a 1999 review of alternative cancer theories, the author states "From a view of philosophy of science such criticism is valuable and deserves careful evaluation." (Anticancer Res 1999 Nov-Dec;19(6A):4913-4) Do you think that your cancer theory is getting adequate attention and "careful evaluation", and is the scientific community actively engaging in a debate of it?

A. Not yet. Thirteen (13) grant applications to non-private funding agencies have all been turned down. Instead of welcoming alternative hypotheses, as for example our aneuploidy hypothesis, the proponents of the oncogene hypothesis use the quasi monopoly on American cancer research grants of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to exclude alternative hypotheses from government grants.

The mechanism of exclusion takes advantage of the little known practice that the NIH "deputizes" its authority to distribute tax money to individual researchers to committees of "experts". These "experts" are cancer researchers who are distinguished for an outstanding contribution to the current orthodoxy. I used to be one of them, before I challenged the virus-AIDS hypothesis in 1987. Moreover, the experts are now even legally rewarded for their investments in the orthodoxy by income from commercial applications of their work via patents, shared with universities!

The only break for us so far was an article in the January issue of the Journal National Cancer Inst., "Webb T: When theories collide: Experts develop different models for carcinogenesis." (J Natl Cancer Inst 2001; 93: 92-94).

Q. What do you think of the lack of media attention to your recently published cancer papers (see bibliography list at end)?

A. The current mainstream "media" and the current mainstream scientists face the same dilemma: Both are highly specialized professionals that depend on the think collective (as Fleck and Kuhn used to call it) for support, recognition and survival! Take the AIDS/science writers Altman (New York Times) or Perlman (San Francisco Chronicle). Both are aware of the failures of the HIV-AIDS hypothesis to produce and to explain, but will they write about the basic flaws of HIV-AIDS? About Duesberg? Of course not.

If they did, it would probably be their last story on AIDS, if not on science, in the respective newspapers. Their weekly AIDS columns would no longer be wired in from the NIH press office, or from Nature or Science. Their phone calls to Fauci, Varmus, Baltimore, Gallo, Weinberg, etc., would no longer be answered. Their invitations and hotel reservations at the next AIDS or cancer meeting would no longer be offered.

Take Perlman's example: In 1992, when Nature editor Maddox almost came around to Duesberg for a while, Perlman had a story written about Duesberg and in no time, was twice in my lab, gave me his home number, email, etc. But then Nature reconsidered, in response to violent complaints from the AIDS establishment. And so did Perlman.

After consulting his "sources", Perlman now decided to make publication of his article dependent on an "agreement" between me and a leading AIDS researcher (J. Levy) from University of California San Fransisco (UCSF). Since our meeting did not generate the desired "agreement", Perlman never published his story and has been a faithful AIDS reporter ever since. Recently, he was decorated by UCSF with a medal for decades of faithful reporting of UCSF science breakthroughs, ie. without unnecessary questions by himself or other scientists.

Another recent case in point is a young reporter who called 2 months ago to write about my recent paper that the long investigated problem of drug-resistant cancer cells, could be explained by aneuploidy. Briefly, aneuploidy destabilizes chromosome segregation by unbalancing the spindle apparatus, and keeps regrouping the karyotype to generate ever new assortments of chromosomes, including those that confer resistance to chemotherapy.

But he was directed by his editor to write about my "discredited " AIDS views instead. In my office, he told me that several colleagues also told him not to write about Duesberg's aneuploidy-cancer hypothesis, in order not to "legitimize" him, and in order not to "isolate" himself.

Even Bob Sanders from the University of California - Berkely (the university where I work) press office was surprised about the unusual lack of responses, either positive or negative, to a press release which he had prepared on the my published paper in January.

Likewise my friend Russel Schoch, editor of the Cal Monthly magazine here at UCB is under a "Duesberg embargo" from the board of the journal's directors. Even if it is about cancer, Duesberg is not to be "legitimized".

So you can see that the "free" press that we enjoy in our country has limitations very similar to the free science, that our government sponsors so generously via "peer review".

Q. In a paper published last year in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (Proc Natl Acad Sci 2000 Mar 28;97:3236-41) you critically review the conclusions drawn from a previous study, which claimed to provide further evidence of the gene mutation theory of cancer. You analyzed the same exact data and cell samples yet came to completely different conclusions. How often do you think that stated conclusions in the published literature don't coincide with the actual data? How large of a problem is this? Is there any remedy for it?

A. The problem is very large in AIDS and in cancer, both areas of my expertise. The ONLY solution would be to free scientific spending from vested interests (i.e., the "expert" peer r

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